Research Articles on Symbols

Usefulness of Symbols | Comparisons of Symbol Sets | Miscellaneous AAC Studies

Usefulness of Symbols

Charlop, C., Carpenter, M., LeBlanc, L. & Kellet, K. (2002). Using the picture exchange communication system (PECS) with children with autism: Assessment of PECS acquisition, speech, social-communicative behavior and problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 35: 213-231.

This study determined that PECS increases spontaneous natural speech.

Doss, L. Scott, Locke, Peggy Ann, Johnston, Susan S. et. al (1991). Initial Comparison of the Efficiency of a Variety of AAC Systems for Ordering Meals in Fast Food Restaurants. AAC Augmentative and Alternative communication, 7, 256-261.

This study compared the efficiency and effectiveness of a pocket-sized communication book with PCS and the Light Talker with ECHO speech synthesis for ordering in fast food restaurants. The result showed the Light Talker to be less efficient and less effective than the manual picture wallet. The clerks requested more clarifications and the order time was longer with the Light Talker. Also, more questions were asked directly to the user of the wallet than with the Light Talker (where clerks tended to ask someone else).

Address reprint requests to: Joe Reichle, Ph.D., Dept. of Communication Disorders, U. of Minnesota, 115 Shevlin Hall, 164 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455.

Durand, V. Mark (1993) Functional Communication Training Using Assistive Devices: Effects on Challenging Behavior and Affect. AAC Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 9, 168-176.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of functional communication training as an intervention for the aggression, self-injury, and tantrums exhibited by three students. Assistive devices were used to augment their communicative skills. Data collected indicated that not only did the students use their devices successfully, but the intervention also reduced their challenging behavior. Students also displayed increased positive facial expression.

Address reprint requests to: V. Mark Durand, Dept. of Psychology, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Ave., Albany, NY 12222, USA.

Johnston, Susan, Nelson,Catherine, Evans, Joanne and Palazolo, Kristie (2003) The Use of Visual Supports in Teaching Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder to Initiate Interactions. AAC Augmentative and Alternative Communication 19, 86-103.

Three preschool-aged children with autism spectrum disorder were taught to use the question “Can I play?” in PCS to ask for entrance into play activities. Results showed that the intervention strategy was effective for all three children. The majority of the teachers felt that the time required to implement the strategy was worth the benefits. Benefits included increased on-task time.

Corresponding author. Tel: 801-581-5187. Fax: 801-585-6476. E-mail: Johnst_S@utah.edu

Miranda, P. (November 2003). Using AAC to reduce problem behavior. In Augmentative Communication News, Volume 15, #4 (issue on Autism Spectrum Disorders).

"After introducing Alec (17 years old) to the schedule and choice system (using PCS) his aggressive behavior decreased from an average of 23 severe aggressive episodes per month at baseline to near-zero levels over the subsequent 21 months when data were collected. Three years after the intervention, Alec continues to use his schedule and choice system and his aggression is no longer evident. The use of AAC supports had a dramatic effect on Alec’s functional communication and his quality of life, as well as on the quality of life of those providing him with support."

For a copy of this issue, contact ACN, 1 Surf Way, #237, Monterey, CA 93940, www.augcominc.com, Sarahblack@aol.com

Mirenda, P. (November 2003). Using AAC to support expression, language comprehension and emotional regulation. In Augmentative Communication News, Volume 15, #4, (issue on autism spectrum Disorders).

Rachel (6 years old and diagnosed with PDS-NOS) was making a transition into an integrated kindergarten setting at the time of the intervention. The staff provided her with:

1. Expressive language visual supports (using the PCS). These were to use during activities within the typical kindergarten curriculum, so that she could share information or comment.
2. Receptive language visual supports (using PCS) and strategies. These were to clarify multi-step classroom activities and to heighten her comprehension of oral instructions.
3. Organization and emotional regulation visual supports (using PCS). These included across-task schedules, and an emotion wheel.

"By the time Rachel entered first grade, she had made gains in expressive communication, and now comments about events in her journal. She has also increased her use of novel sentence structures. She continues to rely on sentence assembly supports during some class activities.

She can now independently follow multi-step activities, using a symbol schedule to cue her. She no longer requires verbal prompting or multiple repetitions of instructions.

Rachel’s overall organization and emotional regulation abilities have improved. She uses her across-task schedule board, the emotion sheet, and spontaneously request self-soothing activities."

For a copy of this issue, contact ACN, 1 Surf Way, #237, Monterey, CA 93940, www.augcominc.com, Sarahblack@aol.com

Rotholz, David A., Berkowitz, Susan F. (1989) Functionality of Two Modes of Communication in the Community by Students with Developmental Disabilities: A Comparison of Signing and Communication Books. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 14, 227-233.

This study examined the functionality of signs and iconic communication book symbols (the PCS) in community settings with two students with autism. The results of this investigation revealed that neither student communicated functionally (i.e. made successful requests) in community settings using sign language. After receiving communication book training at school, both students generalized their new communication skills to different settings and persons and successfully requested items of their choice at McDonald's.

Address reprint requests to: David A. Rotholz, Ph.D., The New England Center for Autism, 33 Turnpike Rd., Southboro, MA 01772.

Rowland, Charity, Schweigert, Philip (1989) Tangible Symbols: Symbolic Communication for Individuals with Multisensory Impairments. AAC Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 5, 226-234.

This study includes a sequence of communication development that accommodates the use of tangible symbols (objects or pictures) and two brief case histories illustrating the acquisition of tangible symbol systems by individuals with multisensory impairments. Data is also presented on the progress of nine individuals who were taught to use tangible symbols. Most participants entered the Tangible Symbols project with no means of symbolic communication, and concluded the project with a viable communication system consisting of manipulable object or picture symbols.

Address reprint requests to: Charity Rowland, Ph.D., Oregon Research Institute, 1899 Willamette, Suite 2, Eugene, OR 97401, USA.

Rett Syndrome: Studies have been done by Dr. David A. Koppenhaver, Ph.D., concerning the use of AAC devices in conjunction with storybooks to increase communication in children with Rett syndrome. All of the children showed an increased range of communication, including increased eye pointing and AAC use. It was also felt that the children demonstrated emergent literacy knowledge.

For more information contact Dr. Koppenhaver at Gustavus Adolphus College, Education Dept, 800 W. College Ave., St. Peter, MN 56082.

Comparisons of Symbol Sets

Bloomberg, Karen, Karlan, George, R., and Lloyd, Lyle L. (1990). The Comparative Translucency of Initial Lexical Items Represented in Five Graphic Symbol Systems and Sets. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 33, 717-725.

The comparative translucency of five symbols sets (Blissymbols, Picsyms, PIC, PCS, and Rebus) representing three parts of speech (nouns, verbs, and modifiers) was investigated. Undergraduate college students rated 41 items on a 7-point scale of iconicity. Rebus and PCS were the most translucent overall; however, a number of Blissymbolics, Picsyms, and PIC symbols were also rated as highly translucent.

Address reprint requests to: George R. Karlan, Special Education, SCCC-E, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

Huer, Mary B. (2000). Examining perceptions of graphic symbols across cultures: Preliminary study of the impact of culture/ethnicity, Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 16, 180-185.

Three graphic symbol sets (PCS, Blissymbolics and DynaSyms) were compared for translucency with 147 adults. These adults were from four ethnic/cultural backgrounds: European/American, Mexican, Chinese, and African-American. The subjects were asked to identify 41 symbols from each of the three symbol sets. It was found that symbols were perceived differently by persons from different backgrounds. The PCS were found to be the most translucent, while the Blissymbols were found to be the least translucent for all four ethnic groups.

Address reprint requests to: Mary Blake Huer, Dept. of Speech Communication, CSU - Fullerton, P.O. Box 6868, Fullerton, CA 92834-6868, USA

Mirenda, Pat, and Locke, Peggy A. (1989) A Comparison of Symbol Transparency in Nonspeaking Persons with Intellectual Disabilities. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 131-140.

The transparency of 11 different types of symbols representing objects with 40 nonspeaking subjects who experienced various degree of intellectual disability was studied. The symbol sets included nonidentical objects, miniature objects, identical colored photographs, nonidentical colored photographs, black and white photographs, PCS, Picsyms, Rebus, Self-Talk, Blissymbols, and written words. Real objects were found to be the most readily recognized and Blissymbols and written words the most difficult. A hierarchy of difficulty was found for the other symbol sets assessed.

Address reprint requests to: Pat Mirenda, Ph.D., Dept. of Communication Disorders, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 202 Barkley Memorial Center, Lincoln, NE 68583.

Mizuko, Mark (1987). Transparency and Ease of Learning of Symbols Represented by Blissymbols, PCS, and Picsyms, AAC Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 3, 129-136.

The symbol sets were studied to determine if normally developing 3-year-old children showed any significant differences in terms of the transparency and learning rate of the symbols. PCS and Picsyms were more transparent and easier to learn than Blissymbols, regardless of the symbol category.

Address reprint requests to: Mark Mizuko, Ph.D., Dept of Communication Sciences & Disorders, University of Minnesota Duluth, 221 Bohannon Hall, 1207 Ordean Court, Duluth, MN 55812.

Mizuko, Mark, Reichle, Joe (1989). Transparency and Recall of Symbols Among Intellectually Handicapped Adults. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 627-633.

This investigation studied and compared the transparency and recall of symbols from the Blissymbols, PCS, and Picsyms symbol sets among adults with intellectual handicaps. Three parts of speech (nouns, verbs, descriptors) were studied. Subjects correctly identified significantly fewer Blissymbols representing nouns than either PCS or Picsyms. In the early stages of recall for nouns, PCS and Picsyms were significantly easier to recall than Blissymbols.

Address reprint requests to: Mark Mizuko, Ph.D., Dept of Communication Sciences & Disorders, University of Minnesota Duluth, 221 Bohannon Hall, 1207 Ordean Court, Duluth, MN 55812.

Miscellaneous AAC Studies

Cress, Cynthia J. and Marvin, Christine A. (Dec. 2003) Common questions about AAC Services in Early Intervention. AAC Augmentative and Alternative Communication 19, 254-272.

The following common questions relating to AAC were answered and substantiated with references to multiple research studies.

• How early can AAC interventions begin? What prerequisites are necessary?
• Will the use of AAC interfere with a child’s vocal development?
• Will this child talk?
• Where is the best place to start early AAC intervention?
• Is it necessary to understand specific concepts/vocabulary before that vocabulary can be used for communication?
• What should be done if the child’s AAC attempts are inappropriate, confusing or random?
• How can communication systems be moved beyond a single word level?
• Are voice output systems considered better than low-tech picture selection systems?
• Why does the child seldom initiate communication with an AAC system?

Corresponding authors. Cynthia Cress or Chris Marvin, 202 Barkley Memorial Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68683-0732, USA. Tel: 402-472-3956. Fax: 402-472-7697. Email: ccressl@unl.edu and cmarvinl@unl.edu.

Mirenda, P. (2001) Autism, augmentative communication and assistive technology: What do we really know? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16: 141-151.

The author found no evidence that low- or high-tech AAC approaches interfered with the speech development of individuals with ASD.

Mirenda, P. & Erickson, K. (2000). Augmentative communication and literacy. In A. Wetherby and B. Prizant, Autism Spectrum Disorders. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Includes a discussion of the benefits of using AAC devices with individuals with autism.

Parsons, C. & LaSorte, D. (1993). The effect of computers with synthesized speech and no speech on the spontaneous communication of children with autism. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders. 21: 12-31.

Computer-based instruction with synthetic speech output increases natural speech production more than computer-based instruction without speech output.

Romski, M.A. & Seveik, R.A. (1996). Breaking the Speech Barrier: Language Development through Augmented Means. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Includes a discussion of the benefits of using AAC devices with individuals with autism.

Schepis, M., Reid, D., Behrmann, M. & Sutton, K. 91998). Increasing communication interactions of young children with autism using a voice output communication aid and naturalistic teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 31: 461-478.

Four preschool children with autism were taught to use speech generating devices to request, make social comments and respond to questions in a contextually appropriate and spontaneous manner.